Summary:
The model of how we deal with social exclusion is structured around three stages: reflexive, reflective, and resignation. The first stage, reflexive, occurs immediately after an experience of exclusion, where individuals react instinctively to being left out or ignored. This stage is often experienced with intense emotional distress and has been shown to activate brain regions associated with physical pain. Research demonstrates that the experience of social exclusion is not just an emotional or psychological response, but can actually feel like physical pain, as the same areas of the brain become engaged as when one is physically injured. This phenomenon illustrates how deeply wired the need for social connection is in human beings, as rejection is perceived by the brain similarly to bodily harm.
The second stage, reflective, involves a more conscious process, where the individual begins to analyze and interpret the situation. During this stage, people may attempt to understand why they were excluded, and they may ruminate on the reasons behind the rejection. This stage can be characterized by feelings of confusion or frustration as the person struggles to make sense of what has happened, often leading to further emotional distress.
The final stage, resignation, occurs after the individual has processed the exclusion and come to terms with it, albeit often reluctantly. In this stage, people may withdraw or disengage from the social situation, accepting that they are no longer part of the group or interaction. This stage can lead to feelings of low self-worth, sadness, and sometimes even a sense of hopelessness about their social connections.
To demonstrate this theory, researchers Williams and Jarvis (2006) designed an ingenious experiment called "Cyberball." In this study, participants believed they were playing a game of catch with two other players, who were actually pre-programmed computer agents. The game began with all three participants tossing a virtual ball back and forth, but after a few minutes, the two computer players began to exclude the real participant by tossing the ball only to each other. The participant was left out, ignored, for the remainder of the game, leading to feelings of rejection and dejection. As the game continued, participants reported a significant decrease in self-esteem and a diminished sense of meaning in their existence, illustrating how deeply painful social exclusion can be. Though the participants were fully debriefed afterward and reassured, the experiment highlighted the powerful emotional impact of social exclusion.
Further studies using brain imaging techniques have reinforced the model's insights. When participants played Cyberball while in a brain scanner, the results were striking. The areas of the brain that lit up in response to social rejection were the same regions that would be activated if the person were experiencing physical pain. This finding underlines how our brains process social exclusion in a manner similar to how they process physical injury, highlighting the profound and visceral impact of being socially rejected. Such studies underscore the idea that social affiliation is not just a psychological need but a biological imperative, deeply embedded in our neurobiology. The pain of social rejection, as demonstrated by Cyberball and other research, shows that our need for connection is as fundamental to our well-being as the need for physical survival.
An Application:
In the world of work, understanding the stages of social exclusion and the emotional pain associated with it can have important applications, particularly in managing workplace dynamics and improving employee well-being. One key application of this research is in addressing the impact of workplace ostracism. Workplace ostracism occurs when employees are excluded from social interactions, ignored, or made to feel invisible by their colleagues or managers. This can happen in various forms, such as being left out of meetings, excluded from team discussions, or not being invited to social events or workplace activities.
Given the research that shows social exclusion activates brain regions linked to physical pain, the effects of ostracism in the workplace can be profound. Employees who experience exclusion may suffer from lower morale, diminished job satisfaction, and a decrease in motivation and engagement. In extreme cases, long-term ostracism can lead to burnout, mental health issues, and even higher turnover rates, as employees feel undervalued or disconnected from the organisation.
To address workplace ostracism and its negative effects, organizations can implement strategies that foster inclusion and team cohesion. For example, creating opportunities for all employees to contribute during meetings, ensuring that team decisions are collaborative, and providing social events or activities where employees can interact outside of their usual work roles can help prevent feelings of exclusion. Additionally, managers and leaders can be trained to recognize signs of social exclusion, whether intentional or inadvertent, and be encouraged to promote a culture of openness and respect. This can include actively involving all team members in projects, giving recognition to their contributions, and ensuring that no employee feels sidelined.
Furthermore, by fostering a culture of inclusion, organizations can mitigate the negative effects of social exclusion and boost employee engagement and satisfaction. When employees feel valued and connected to their colleagues, their sense of belonging within the organization increases, leading to better performance, increased motivation, and a stronger overall team dynamic. Thus, understanding the emotional and psychological pain of social exclusion can guide organisations in creating more supportive, inclusive, and productive work environments.
Can you remember being left out of something at school? Did the experience follow the stages outlined by the temporal threat need model? And, did you seek compensatory forms of affiliation after the experience? (as the theory would predict).
Key References
Williams K. D. (2009). Ostracism: A temporal need-threat model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 279–314.
This review by Kip Williams explores the concept of ostracism in social and organisational contexts. It delves into the psychological and emotional effects of being excluded, including the pain that results from social rejection. It also provides insights into how ostracism impacts workplace behavior, performance, and interpersonal relationships.
Ferris, D. L., Lian, H., & Brown, D. J. (2015). The effects of ostracism in the workplace: A review of the literature. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 36(6), 1020-1036.
This article provides a comprehensive review of the literature on workplace ostracism, detailing its causes, effects, and implications for employees and organizations. It examines how ostracism can lead to decreased job satisfaction, lower morale, and higher turnover intentions, as well as offering strategies for organizations to address these issues.
Ruth, A., & Williams, K. D. (2011). The impact of workplace ostracism on job performance and satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96(5), 1060-1074.
This meta-analysis explores the relationship between workplace ostracism and various outcomes such as job performance, job satisfaction, and employee well-being. It underscores the importance of addressing social exclusion in the workplace and its negative effects on organizational outcomes.
