Summary:
Fiske and Neuberg’s model of impression formation is presented as a continuum that ranges from category-based processing at one end to attribute-based processing at the other. Category-based processing involves using stereotypes or heuristics to form quick impressions of others based on group membership or visible characteristics, such as gender, age, or occupation. On the opposite end, attribute-based processing entails a deeper, more deliberate evaluation of a person’s individual traits, behaviors, and attributes. Whether someone engages in category-based or attribute-based processing depends on their level of motivation and cognitive capacity. When people are motivated and have the mental resources available—such as when they are not distracted, rushed, or fatigued—they are more likely to move beyond superficial cues and engage in attribute-based processing to form a nuanced understanding of the individual. In contrast, when they are preoccupied, under stress, or lack interest in knowing the person better, they default to category-based processing, relying on stereotypes or generalizations. For example, someone who is busy or disinterested might assume that an elderly individual is frail or that a nurse is nurturing, rather than taking the time to evaluate the individual’s unique traits and behaviors. This continuum reflects the flexible and context-dependent nature of how we form impressions of others.
An Application:
Fiske and Neuberg’s model of impression formation can be directly applied to the process of evaluating job applications, as it highlights how decision-makers process information about candidates. The continuum between category-based and attribute-based processing illustrates how evaluators might rely on superficial cues or, alternatively, engage in a more detailed analysis of a candidate’s qualifications and fit for the role.
When evaluators are motivated and have the cognitive resources available—such as time, focus, and a genuine interest in making the best hire—they are more likely to engage in attribute-based processing. This approach involves carefully reviewing the applicant's resume, cover letter, and other submitted materials to assess their skills, experiences, and accomplishments. Evaluators may also look for unique qualities, ask tailored interview questions, and consider the candidate as an individual, rather than a representative of a group.
However, when evaluators are busy, stressed, or overwhelmed by a large volume of applications, they are more likely to default to category-based processing. In this mode, decisions are influenced by stereotypes, biases, or heuristic shortcuts. For instance, evaluators might make assumptions based on the candidate’s name, perceived gender, age, educational institution, or previous job title. For example, a hiring manager might unconsciously assume that a candidate from a prestigious university is more capable, or that someone with an unconventional career path lacks the necessary expertise.
The model underscores the importance of creating conditions that encourage attribute-based processing during the hiring process. This can include providing adequate time for evaluators to review applications, training to reduce unconscious biases, and implementing structured evaluation criteria that focus on specific job-related attributes rather than superficial characteristics. By doing so, organizations can foster a fairer and more effective hiring process that values candidates for their individual qualifications rather than assumptions tied to their perceived group membership.
Think of some people you know, but do not know well - do you make assumptions about what they might be like based on stereotypes?
Key References
Fiske, S. T., & Neuberg, S. L. (1990). A continuum of impression formation, from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 23, 1–74.
This seminal work introduces the continuum model, detailing the cognitive and motivational factors that influence whether individuals rely on stereotypes or individuating information when forming impressions.
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In The Handbook of Social Psychology (4th ed., pp. 357–411). McGraw-Hill.
This chapter explores how category-based processing underlies stereotyping and bias, providing insights into its implications for decision-making contexts like hiring. It also examines how motivation and cognitive resources can mitigate reliance on stereotypes.
Uhlmann, E. L., & Cohen, G. L. (2005). Constructed criteria: Redefining merit to justify discrimination. Psychological Science, 16(6), 474–480.
This study examines how category-based processing can influence evaluations in hiring, particularly when stereotypes affect how evaluators define and prioritize qualifications, often in ways that justify biased decisions.
