Summary:
Social Comparison Theory was introduced by psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954, and it posits that individuals have a natural tendency to evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and social standing by comparing themselves to others. According to Festinger, this comparison process is an essential part of human self-evaluation and plays a significant role in shaping self-esteem, self-concept, and motivation. People engage in social comparisons as a way to reduce uncertainty about themselves and to validate their feelings, beliefs, or behaviors. Through these comparisons, individuals gain insight into their personal standing in society, often using others as a benchmark for self-assessment.
Key Concepts in Social Comparison Theory:
Upward social comparisons occur when individuals compare themselves to others who are perceived as better off, more accomplished, or more capable in a particular domain. While upward comparisons can serve as a source of inspiration and motivation, they can also lead to feelings of inadequacy, frustration, or low self-esteem, especially when the perceived gap between oneself and the other person is too wide.
Downward social comparisons involve comparing oneself to others who are perceived as worse off or less capable. These comparisons can enhance self-esteem by making individuals feel better about their own situation. However, when overused, downward comparisons may lead to complacency and a lack of motivation for self-improvement.
Comparison in Different Contexts: Social comparison is not limited to specific domains such as physical appearance or academic achievements. People use comparisons across various dimensions, including professional success, relationships, social status, and even moral behavior. Social media platforms, in particular, have amplified the role of social comparison in modern life. Platforms like Instagram and Facebook often feature idealized representations of other people's lives, fueling upward comparisons and, at times, leading to negative emotions or self-doubt for viewers (Vogel, Rose, Roberts, & Eckles, 2014).
The Role of Social Comparison in Motivation and Well-Being: Social comparisons can affect both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. For instance, in a workplace context, employees may compare their salaries, promotions, or professional accomplishments to colleagues, which can either encourage them to work harder or lead to dissatisfaction. When individuals perceive their achievements as inferior to others', they may feel demotivated or even disengage from their work. Alternatively, comparisons that highlight higher achievements can encourage individuals to set goals and strive for improvement (Festinger, 1954; Tesser, 1988).
Cognitive and Emotional Reactions: Social comparison affects both cognitive and emotional responses. People may adjust their perceptions of their own abilities or values to align more closely with the individuals they compare themselves to, leading to changes in self-esteem and social identity. Moreover, the emotional reactions to comparisons can be diverse. Positive comparisons may bring pride or joy, while negative comparisons can trigger feelings of envy, jealousy, or shame.
An Application:
Social comparison theory has many practical applications in contemporary settings. One of the most prominent examples is its role in the impact of social media on mental health. Studies have shown that the constant exposure to carefully curated images and narratives on platforms like Instagram, where others’ lives appear more glamorous, often leads to negative body image and lower self-esteem among users, particularly among teenagers and young adults (Fardouly, Diedrichs, Vartanian, & Halliwell, 2015). This can be exacerbated by upward comparisons, where users feel that they fall short of the idealised portrayals they see online.
In education, social comparisons among students can influence their academic performance and motivation. When students compare themselves with high-achieving peers, it may either inspire them to work harder or lead to feelings of discouragement. Teachers and educators can use social comparison theory to better understand student behaviour and develop interventions that encourage positive comparisons that enhance motivation without fostering unhealthy competition.
Similarly, in the workplace, employees’ comparisons of salaries, job satisfaction, or recognition can significantly influence their overall well-being and work performance. Companies that foster a collaborative rather than competitive environment may mitigate the negative effects of social comparison, leading to higher levels of job satisfaction and productivity.
Can you think of some times where you have decided to present youself to others in a particular way to enable a downward comparison (and how this made you feel)?
Key References
Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of Social Comparison Processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117-140.
This is the foundational article where Festinger first introduced the concept of social comparison theory, describing how people use comparisons with others to evaluate their own abilities and opinions.
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 181–227). Academic Press.
This paper elaborates on the processes behind social comparison, introducing the self-evaluation maintenance model, which focuses on how individuals avoid threats to their self-esteem in social comparison situations.
Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 51-69.
This article reviews the effects of upward comparisons, discussing how comparing oneself to those perceived as better can both motivate and diminish self-esteem, depending on individual differences and the context of the comparison.
