Summary:
Frustration-Aggression Theory, initially proposed by Dollard and colleagues (1939), posits that aggression is a natural response to frustration. According to this theory, frustration occurs when an individual is blocked from achieving a goal or when their desires or needs are thwarted. The frustration that arises from being blocked in this way creates an emotional response that often leads to aggression. However, if the cause of frustration cannot be directly addressed—either because the person or event responsible is too powerful, or because the cause is not an individual but a broader, more abstract situation—then aggression may be displaced or redirected onto a more accessible or vulnerable target.
This theory helps explain many forms of aggression in social contexts, from individual outbursts to societal-wide phenomena. For instance, in a workplace setting, employees who are frustrated by management decisions, workplace policies, or interpersonal conflicts with colleagues might direct their aggression toward others who are less powerful or more accessible. This can manifest as passive-aggressive behavior, verbal hostility, or even workplace violence. Similarly, in classrooms, students who are frustrated with academic pressure, unfair treatment, or disciplinary policies may redirect that frustration onto peers, teachers, or even the school environment itself.
Dollard et al.'s original theory posits that aggression is an inevitable and natural response to frustration. However, it is important to note that the level of aggression is often determined by the availability of a target for that aggression. For example, a person who cannot express anger toward a supervisor may channel that anger toward a subordinate or a neutral third party. This is known as displacement.
Frustration can arise from both individual and societal-level stressors. On an individual level, frustration might come from personal goals, relationship challenges, or other personal barriers. On a societal level, frustration can stem from economic instability, political dissatisfaction, or social inequality. When these frustrations build up, they can manifest in collective aggression. For example, during times of economic recession, frustration with financial hardship, unemployment, or economic uncertainty can increase aggression and result in a rise in hate crimes or social unrest. The frustration with a larger, faceless cause—such as a lack of jobs or a failing economy—can be displaced onto more visible or vulnerable targets, like ethnic, racial, or religious minorities.
An Application:
One application of Frustration-Aggression Theory is in understanding and addressing workplace aggression. For instance, employees who feel blocked from career advancement, receive unfair treatment from management, or experience high levels of job stress may direct their frustration toward colleagues, leading to workplace bullying, passive-aggressive behavior, or outright verbal or physical aggression. This can create a toxic work environment, reduce employee morale, and lower productivity. Recognizing that frustration stemming from systemic factors—such as unrealistic expectations, lack of resources, or workplace inequities—can lead to aggression is crucial in mitigating these behaviors. By addressing the root causes of frustration (e.g., improving workplace conditions, offering support, and fostering open communication), organisations can reduce the likelihood of aggression and improve the overall work environment.
In classrooms, teachers can apply this theory by recognizing when students may be frustrated with schoolwork, social relationships, or the school system itself. If students cannot express their frustration directly toward the system, teachers or peers, the aggression may manifest in disruptive behavior, truancy, or bullying. Teachers and school administrators can reduce the likelihood of such behaviour by creating a supportive, fair, and communicative environment where students feel heard, and by addressing the sources of frustration before they escalate into aggression.
On a societal level, Frustration-Aggression Theory can help explain phenomena like the increase in hate crimes during periods of economic recession or political turmoil. When individuals or groups feel economically or socially disadvantaged, they may redirect their frustration toward out-groups—those perceived as different or responsible for their hardship. This can manifest in increased incidents of discrimination, violence, or social unrest. Understanding this dynamic can help policymakers and community leaders address the underlying sources of frustration, such as economic inequality or political polarisation, to prevent societal aggression from escalating.
Can you think of a time when you've felt stressed about something and taken it out on someone else?
Key References
Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. Yale University Press.
This foundational work by Dollard and colleagues introduces Frustration-Aggression Theory, discussing how frustration leads to aggression and how aggression can be redirected toward more accessible targets.
Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 59-73.
This article offers a critical review of the Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis and provides a reformulation of the theory, acknowledging that not all frustration leads to aggression and exploring the role of cognitive appraisal in the process.
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Blackwell Publishing.
This book explores the relationship between frustration, aggression, and bullying in school settings, providing an application of Frustration-Aggression Theory to understanding the dynamics of bullying and how frustration leads to aggressive behaviours in young people.
